Different from the eco-cultural models the simple and the refined , Super and Harkness suggest that the child grows up in a developmental niche which consists of three components: Physical and social setting, customs and child-rearing practices and caretaker psychology i.
Psychology is the scientific study of how human think, how they feel about issues and their behaviour in this research we will learn the meaning of perspectives in Psychology, dwelling on the biological and behavioural approach, I will discuss the difference and commonalities between the two perspectives.
There is no one way to approach this perspectives, one is not above the other, though for a long while the behavioural approach was holding the ace being assumed to be the only scientific one. Furthermore he fails to recognise that the content selection or subject selection also contain implicit meanings within, especially when considered curricula like curriculum for social adaptation and social reconstruction and curriculum for academic rationalism which are chosen for the skills and values that they offer to learners Eisner Often these curricula have been designed specifically for their implicit curriculum and ability to produce what society deems valuable and necessary.
Ultimately the implicit curriculum, perhaps because of its potential of inadvertent damage, must be considered when engaging in curriculum study, simply because it is so important in the education of a child in terms of becoming a functioning adult in. Operant Conditioning is one of the most practical learning theories which can be used during different phases of life to learn or unlearn a specific or a series of behaviour. Operant conditioning has been successfully applied in many settings: clinical, for individual behaviour modification, teaching, for classroom management, instructional development, for programmed instruction, and management, for organizational behaviour modification.
Hence, According to me, I strongly feel that Operant Conditioning is the most unique, scientific and logical way of handling most of our day to day processes of learning and hindrances that we face in our daily lives.
From the very beginning of the toddler, to the learning in schools and to the workplace settings we can apply the principles of this. For learning, it establishes new connections between stimuli or between a stimulus and a response. These theories do not necessarily deny the existence of internal and abstract processes intermediate variables mental processes However, as it is not possible to observe these processes as the mental functioning of the subject is not accessible both neurobiological and psychological, behaviorism rather not consider.
They take classification data and a rule-based theory as input which are the result of a rule-based learner with the hopes of producing a more accurate model of the data Hekenaho The majority of rule-based models that have been developed are heuristic, meaning that rational analyses have not been provided and the models are not related to statistical approaches to induction.
A rational analysis for rule-based models could presume that concepts are represented as rules, and would then ask to what degree of belief a rational agent should be in agreement with each rule, with some observed examples provided Goodman, Griffiths, Feldman, and Tenenbaum. Rule-based theories of concept learning are focused more so on perceptual learning and less on definition learning. Rules can be used in learning when the stimuli are confusable, as opposed to simple.
Those Psychologists who are for the Behavioural learning theory do not focus on the internal thought process. They approach the mind as a black box and lays emphasis on the aspect of behaviour that can be observed. These observable aspects includes things that goes into the box which are the stimuli or events perceived externally. For instance, if you are unable to submit an assignment on time to your class teacher, your teacher scolds you or maybe refuses to accept your assignment. By giving such a punishment, your teacher expects that you would submit your assignments on time in the near future.
Operant Conditioning Positive Punishment refers to a situation where the occurrence of a specific behavior reduces as an unpleasant event, condition, or thing is presented in consequence of exhibiting such a specific behavior. Operant Conditioning Negative Punishment refers to a situation where the probability of specific behavior to occur reduces as a pleasant event, condition, or a thing is withdrawn or removed in consequence of exhibiting such a specific behavior. Now, you might be wondering that both Negative Reinforcement and Negative Punishment in Operant Conditioning involve the use of unpleasant stimuli.
Well, negative reinforcement in operant conditioning is used to bring out the desired behavior. Whereas, Punishment is used to stop undesirable behavior. This means that the negative reinforcer is given to make you act in the desired way so that you stop the unpleasant condition. Whereas, a Punishment is given so that you associate such an unpleasant condition with the undesirable behavior that you exhibited before and thus stop repeating such behavior.
Now, B. Skinner considered Positive Reinforcement as the most effective technique for child-rearing over the traditional Punishment based approach. He was of the view that Punishment had too many side effects, most prominent being a child becoming hardened to beatings and continuing the misbehavior.
According to B. Skinner, the field of Psychology lacked the preparation to develop theories due to insufficiency of data to justify a theory. Thus, he suggested undertaking Functional Analysis of Behavior instead of proposing a prefabricated theory of Personality. Therefore, there are only two things that you can observe while undertaking the functional analysis of behavior: i The first is the operant which is nothing but the behavior that can be observed, and ii Second is the consequence that lies outside the organism in the environment.
So, the possibility of dividing complicated chunks of behavior into smaller and relatively manageable units compelled Skinner to conduct Functional Analysis of Behavior. For instance, your child is working on a math problem and finds a challenge in solving it. During childhood, he learned numbers and basic mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Also, he learned all these basics during childhood through the reward and punishment process. First, your child learned numbers. Then, he learned the international system of numeration.
Thus, all the techniques had been conditioned into your child by manipulating the consequences. He first selects the piece of the marble, draws the portrait of the sculpture he wants to make on the marbles, and then makes use of various machines and tools to cut and carve the marble.
Initially, you may not recognize what the sculptor is working out. Finally, the Sculptor approximates the final shape of the sculpture by carving the small aspects of the sculpture.
It happens via successive approximations. Say, for instance, your child often gets angry and you want to modify this aspect of his behavior.
That is, you want to make him calmer and subtler in his behavior. Now, you make your child showcase other behaviors considered as steps towards the final behavior. You do this before your child displays the final desired behavior,. And how do you engage him in these numerous other behaviors?
By selectively rewarding the response that you desire. So all these numerous other behaviors that you desire your child to perform are close to the target behavior but are not target per se. Therefore, if you reward your child for exhibiting these approximate target behaviors, then one can say that Shaping is facilitated.
So, Skinner decided to wait till the Pigeon accidentally succeeds in swiping the ball with its beak and accessing the food. However, in between, Skinner got bored. So he decided that he would reward the pigeon for exhibiting any behavior that might lead towards the target behavior. Say, for instance, even if the Pigeon glanced at the ball, he would reward the Pigeon for doing so. So, as Skinner successively rewarded the Pigeon for showcasing such approximate behaviors, he observed that the entire process of making the Pigeon exhibit the target behavior fastened.
Thus, it was observed that rewarding the Pigeon for showcasing simpler steps had automatically led the Pigeon to achieve the next higher step and so on. So, the question that now arises is that how would you know which behaviors are approximating the target?
Well, Skinner suggested that you need to undertake functional behavioral analysis in order to understand and control the behavior of the subject. This analysis would help you to determine not only the components of the ultimate behavior that you desire but also the probable successive steps to such behavior. The antecedents, that is, the stimulus would make the organism move on to the next step.
Whereas, the consequent would reinforce such a step. Therefore, the breaking down of behavior into antecedent — behavior — consequent order is the ABC Technique. So, the learner moves on to the next step automatically when he or she is rewarded or punished at each step.
Thus, via successive approximation to the targeted behavior, the learner finally exhibits the desired behavior. According to Skinner, this successive approximation to the targeted behavior is the Principle of Shaping.
Also, for shaping behavior in the desired way, one needs to use Reinforcements and Punishments in an intelligent manner. Children showcase behavior at all stages of their life. Both parents and teachers act as behavior modifiers. This means that there must be a permanent change in the behavior or behavior potential of your child as a result of the experiences he or she has in school or classroom setting. There are certain principles that teachers follow in a classroom setting in order to facilitate both academic and social behavior.
The Principle that teaches a child to behave in a way he has never exhibited before by rewarding his successive steps towards the targeted behavior. This Principle helps a child in developing a new behavior by giving rewards to the child after every correct performance.
This Principle involves teaching a child to develop a new behavior by making him observe an esteemed person performing the desired behavior. The Cueing Principle aims to enable a child to remember to behave in a specific way at a specific time. This is achieved only if the child receives cues to act appropriately or correctly just before the performance is expected. This Principle teaches a child to act in a specific manner under one set of circumstances but not under another set of circumstances.
This means that as a teacher, you have to help the child in identifying the cues that distinguish between the circumstances rewarding him only when his action is suitable to the cues and other circumstances.
This Principle motivates a child to continue performing the desired behavior by giving him a reward after a long period of time or after giving more number of correct responses. As the name suggests, the Substitution Principle aims at changing or substituting the rewards that were effective previously but are no longer controlling behavior with the new ones.
The Satiation Principle is used to stop a child from behaving in a specific manner by allowing him to perform the undesired behavior until he gets tired. The Extinction Principle involves giving no rewards to the child following his undesired acts in order to stop him to exhibit such an undesirable act.
This Principle suggests that as a teacher, you should reward an alternative action that is either inconsistent with or the one that cannot be performed at the same time as the undesired act.
This is done to stop the child from acting in a specific manner. The Punishment Principle involves delivering unpleasant stimuli immediately after the child performs an undesirable action.
Now, there is one caveat before using this principle in a classroom setting. As per research, Punishment leads to increasing child hostility and aggression. Therefore, it must be used infrequently and in association with reinforcement.
The Avoidance Principle can be used in order to teach a child to avoid a specific type of situation. This can be achieved by presenting to the child a situation that needs to be avoided or some representation of it and also by presenting some unpleasant condition or some representation of it. The Fear Reduction Principle is used in order to teach a child how to overcome the fear of a particular situation. This can be achieved by gradually increasing the exposure of the child to situations that seem fearful to him.
Now, the basic requirement for undertaking Behavior Therapy is to determine the short term as well as the long term targets of behavior modification. Say, for instance, a child is experiencing anger outbursts and as a therapist, you need to treat him.
Therefore, as a part of controlling anger in kids , you need to make a detailed record of his or her behavior by putting questions to the child himself or herself as well as his informants.
Besides this, you also need to determine the feedback the child gets from his or her social environment. Thus, you first deal with small and easy targets, emphasize the adaptive responses, and with the help of the Principle of Shaping Behavior, approach the final target of changing the behavior of the child.
Now, what type of reinforcements boost the desired behavior in this entire process of behavior modification? Reinforcements in order to modify human behavior are of different types. These include verbal and non-verbal reinforcements.
However, Token Economy is the reinforcement type that is associated with the Skinnerian Principle. Further, this technique is used mostly on children and patients who are under strict supervision in the hospital. This means that this type of Behavioral Techniques is applicable for those children as well as patients whose reinforcements can be managed within a structured environment.
In this technique, the child or the patient receives plastic or paper tokens to showcase the desirable behavior. Say, for instance, a person is given 2 tokens waiting for his turn to take shower, 1 token for washing his own clothes, 4 tokens for taking bath regularly, and so on. Now, if the child or the patient does not show the patience to wait for his or her turn to take a bath, instead he or she rushes for the bathroom straight away, then 4 tokens are taken back. So, when kids or the patients get tokens they can buy things like candies, spend an hour with a close friend, and do various other things that they love doing.
Atthowe and L Krasner conducted a study involving the application of Token Economy in an bed closed ward in a Veterans Administration hospital. The patients were either schizophrenics or had their brain-damaged. Such patients were given tokens for performing specified desirable behaviors such as interaction with others, attending different activities, etc. These tokens could be exchanged for certain good things in life like movie tickets, passes, and well-located beds.
At the end of the year, this study revealed that there was a significant increase in the performance of reinforced desirable behaviors as a result of implementing the token economy technique. Operant Conditioning, also referred to as Instrumental Conditioning in Psychology, is a method of learning that is applied using reinforcements and punishments so that an individual exhibits the desired behavior.
This means, via operant conditioning, an individual develops an association between a particular response and a consequence. However, under Instrumental Conditioning, the environment restricts reward earning opportunities. But in the case of Operant Conditioning, there is no limit or restriction on the amount of reinforcement that can be earned via showcasing the desired behavior. Instrumental Learning or Operant Learning is a process by which the frequency of the occurrence of an existing behavior gets altered or new behavior is acquired as a result of the occurrence of events that are contingent or dependent upon the behavior itself.
Positive Reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior is followed by a stimulus that is rewarding thereby increasing the occurrence of such behavior.
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